Construction and Operation
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Unknown >> Construction and Operation
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In connection with these supplemental planes (5), there is
employed a gravity influenced weight, the aviator in his seat,
for holding them in a horizontal, or substantially horizontal,
position when the main plane is traveling on an even keel; and
for causing them to tip when the main plane dips laterally, to
port or starboard, the planes (5) having a lifting effect upon
the
depressed end of the main plane, and a depressing effect upon
the lifted end of the main plane, so as to correct such lateral
dip
of the main plane, and restore it to an even keel. To the
forward,
upper edge of planes (5) connection is made by means
of rod (13) to one arm of a bellcrank lever, (14) the latter
being
pivotally mounted upon a fore and aft pin (15), supported from
the main plane; and the other arms of the port and starboard
bellcrank levers (16), are connected by rod (17), which has an
eye (18), for receiving the segmental rod (19), secured to and
projecting from cross bar on seat supporting yoke (7). When,
therefore, the main plane tips downwardly on the starboard
side, the rod (17) will be moved bodily to starboard, and the
starboard balancing plane (5) will be inclined so as to raise its
forward edge and depress its rear edge, while, at the same time,
the port balancing plane (5), will be inclined so as to depress
its forward edge, and raise its rear edge, thereby causing the
starboard balancing plane to exert a lifting effect, and the port
balancing plane to exert a depressing effect upon the main
plane, with the result of restoring the main plane to an even
keel, at which time the balancing planes (5), will have resumed
their normal, horizontal position.
When the main plane dips downwardly on the port side, a
reverse action takes place, with the like result of restoring the
main plane to an even keel. In order to correct forward and
aft dip of the main plane, fore and aft balancing planes (20)
and (23) are provided. These planes are carried by transverse
rock shafts, which may be pivotally mounted in any suitable
way, upon structures carried by main plane. In the present
instance, the forward balancing plane is pivotally mounted in
extensions (21) of the frame (22) which carries the forward,
manually operated, horizontal ascending and descending plane
It is absolutely necessary, in making a turn with an aeroplane,
if that turn is to be made in safety, that the main plane shall
be inclined, or "banked," to a degree proportional to the
radius
of the curve and to the speed of the aeroplane. Each different
curve, at the same speed, demands a different inclination, as is
also demanded by each variation in speed in rounding like
curves. This invention gives the desired result with absolute
certainty.
The Sellers' Multiplane.
Another innovation is a multiplane, or four-surfaced machine,
built and operated by M. B. Sellers, formerly of Grahn, Ky.,
but now located at Norwood, Ga. Aside from the use of four
sustaining surfaces, the novelty in the Sellers machine lies in
the fact that it is operated successfully with an 8 h. p. motor,
which is the smallest yet used in actual flight. In describing
his work, Mr. Sellers says his purpose has been to develop the
efficiency of the surfaces to a point where flight may be
obtained
with the minimum of power and, judging by the results
accomplished, he has succeeded. In a letter written to the
authors of this book, Mr. Sellers says:
"I dislike having my machine called a quadruplane, because
the number of planes is immaterial; the distinctive feature being
the arrangement of the planes in steps; a better name would
be step aeroplane, or step plane.
"The machine as patented, comprises two or more planes
arranged in step form, the highest being in front. The machine
I am now using has four planes 3 ft. x 18 ft.; total about 200
square feet; camber (arch) 1 in 16.
"The vertical keel is for lateral stability; the rudder for
direction. This is the first machine (so far as I know) to have a
combination of wheels and runners or skids (Oct. 1908). The
wheels rise up automatically when the machine leaves the
ground, so that it may alight on the runners.
"A Duthirt & Chalmers 2-cylinder opposed, 3 1/8-inch engine
was used first, and several hundred short flights were made.
The engine gave four brake h. p., which was barely sufficient
for continued flight. The aeroplane complete with this engine
weighed 78 pounds. The engine now used is a Bates 3 5/8-inch,
2-cylinder opposed, showing 8 h. p., and apparently giving
plenty of power. The weight of aeroplane with this engine is
now 110 pounds. Owing to poor grounds only short flights
have been made, the longest to date (Dec. 31, 1910) being about
1,000 feet.
"In building the present machine, my object was to produce a
safe, slow, light, and small h. p. aeroplane, a purpose which I
have accomplished."
CHAPTER XXVII.
1911 AEROPLANE RECORDS.
THE WORLD AT LARGE.
Greatest Speed Per Hour, Whatever Length of Flight, Aviator
Alone--E. Nieuport, Mourmelon, France, June 21, Nieuport Machine,
82.72 miles; with one passenger, E. Nieuport, Moumlelon, France,
June 12, Nieuport Machine, 67.11 miles; with two passengers, E.
Nieuport, Mourmelon, France, March 9, Nieuport Machine, 63.91
miles; with three passengers, G. Busson, Rheims, France, March
10, Deperdussin Machine, 59.84 miles; with four passengers, G.
Busson, Rheims, France, March 10, Deperdussin Machine, 54.21
miles.
Greatest Distance Aviator Alone--G. Fourny, no stops, Buc,
France, September 2, M. Farman Machine, 447.01 miles; E. Helen,
three stops, Etampes, France, September 8, Nieuport Machine,
778.45 miles; with one passenger, Lieut. Bier, Austria, October
2, Etrich Machine, 155.34 miles; with two passengers, Lieut.
Bier, Austria, October 4, Etrich Machine, 69.59 miles; with three
passengers, G. Busson, Rheims, France, March 10, Deperdussin
Machine, 31.06 miles; with four passengers, G. Busson, Rheims,
France, March 10, Deperdussin Machine, 15.99 miles.
Greatest Duration Aviator Alone--G. Fourny, no stops, Buc,
France, September 2, M. Farman Machine, 11 hours, 1 minute, 29
seconds, E. Helen, three stops, Etampes, France, September 8,
Nieuport Machine, 14 hours, 7 minutes, 50 seconds, 13 hours, 17
minutes net time; with one passenger, Suvelack, Johannisthal,
Germany, December 8, 4 hours, 23 minutes; with two passengers, T.
de W. Milling, Nassau Boulevard, New York, September 26,
Burgess-Wright Machine, 1 hour, 54 minutes, 42 3-5 seconds; with
three passengers, Warchalowski, Wiener-Neustadt, Aust., October
30, 45 minutes, 46 seconds; with four passengers, G. Busson,
Rheims, France, March 10, Deperdussin Machine, 17 minutes, 28 1-5
seconds.
Greatest Altitude Aviator Alone--Garros, St. Malo, France,
September 4, Bleriot Machine, 13,362 feet; with one passenger,
Prevost, Courcy, France, December 2, 9,840 feet; with two
passengers, Lieut. Bier, Austria, Etrich Machine, 4,010 feet.
AMERICAN RECORDS.
Greatest Speed Per Hour, Whatever Length of Flight, Aviator
Alone--A. Leblanc, Belmont Park, N. Y., October 29, Bleriot
Machine, 67.87 miles; with one passenger, C. Grahame-White,
Squantum, Mass., September 4, Nieuport Machine, 63.23 miles; with
two passengers, T. O. M. Sopwith, Chicago, Ill., August 15,
Wright Machine, 34.96 miles.
Greatest Distance Aviator Alone--St. Croix Johnstone, Mineola,
N. Y., July 27, Moisant (Bleriot Type) Machine, 176.23 miles.
Greatest Duration Aviator Alone--Howard W. Gill, Kinloch, Mo.,
October 19, Wright Machine, 4 hours, 16 minutes, 35 seconds; with
one passenger, G. W. Beatty, Chicago, Ill., August 19, Wright
Machine, 3 hours, 42 minutes, 22 1-5 seconds; with two
passengers, T. de W. Milling, Nassau Boulevard, N. Y., September
26, Burgess-Wright Machine, 1 hour, 54 minutes, 42 3-5 seconds.
Greatest Altitude Aviator Alone--L. Beachy, Chicago, Ill., August
20, Curtiss Machine, 11,642 feet; with one passenger, C. Grahame-
White, Nassau Boulevard, N. Y., September 30, Nieuport Machine,
3,347 feet.
Weight Carrying--P. O. Parmelee, Chicago, III., August 19,
Wright Machine, 458 lbs.
AVIATION DEVELOPMENT.
The wonderful progress made in the science of aviation
during the year 1911 far surpasses any twelve months' advancement
recorded. The advancement has not been confined to any country or
continent, since every part of the world is taking its part in
aviation history making.
The rapidly increasing interest in aviation has brought
forth schools for the instruction of flying in both the old and
new world, and licensed air pilots before they receive their
sanctions from the governing aero clubs of their country are
required to pass an extremely trying examination in actual
flights. Exhibition flights and races were common in all
parts of the world during 1911, and touring aviators visited
India, China, Japan, South Africa, Australia and South
America, giving exhibitions and instruction.
Europe was the scene of a number of cross-country races
in which entries ranging from ten to twenty aviators flew
from city to city around a given circuit, which in some
instances exceeded 1,000 miles in distance. Cross-country
flights with and without passengers became so common that
those of less than two hours' duration attracted little
attention. There were fewer attempts at high altitude soaring,
although the world's record in this department of aviation
was bettered several times. In place of these high flights, the
aviators devoted more attention to speed, duration and
spectacular manoeuvres, which appeared to satisfy the spectators.
The prize money won during 1911 exceeded $1,000,000, but
owing to the increased number of aviators the individual
winnings were not as large as in 1910.
It is estimated that within the past twelve months more
than 300,000 miles have been covered in aeroplane flights
and more than seven thousand persons, classed either as
aviators or passengers, taken up into the air. The aeroplane
of today ranges through monoplane, biplane, triplane and
even quadraplane, and more than two hundred types of these
machines are in use.
Aeroplanes are becoming a factor of international commerce.
The records of the Bureau of Statistics show that
more than $50,000 worth of aeroplanes were imported into,
and exported from, the United States in the months of July,
August and September, 1911. The Bureau of Statistics only
began the maintenance of a separate record of this comparatively
new article of commerce with the opening of the fiscal
year 1911-12.
Two of the prominent developments of 1911 were the
introduction of the hydro-aeroplane and the motorless glider
experiments of the Wright brothers at Killdevil Hills, N. C.,
where during the two weeks' experiments numerous flights
with and against the wind were made, culminating in the
establishing of a record by Orville Wright on October 25,
1911, when in a 52-mile per hour blow he reached an elevation
of 225 feet and remained in the air 10 minutes and 34
seconds. The search for the secret of automatic stability
still continues, and though some remarkable progress has
been made the solution has not yet been reached.
NOTABLE CROSS-COUNTRY FLIGHTS OF 1911.
One of the important features of 1911 in aviation was the
rapid increase in the number and distance of cross-country
flights made either for the purpose of exhibition, testing,
instruction or pleasure. Flights between cities in almost every
country of the world became common occurrences. So great
was the number that only those of more than ordinary importance
because of speed, distance or duration are recorded.
The flights of Harry N. Atwood from Boston to Washington
and from St. Louis to New York, and C. P. Rodgers from
New York to Los Angeles were the most important events
of the kind in this country. The St Louis to New York flight
was a distance by air route, 1,266 miles. Duration of flight,
12 days. Net flying time, 28 hours 53 minutes. Average
daily flight, 105.5 miles. Average speed, 43.9 miles per hour.
Transcontinental Flight of Calbraith P. Rodgers.--All
world records for cross-country flying were broken during
the New York to Los Angeles flight of Calbraith P. Rodgers,
who left Sheepshead Bay, N. Y., on Sunday, September 17,
1911, and completed his flight to the Pacific Coast on Sunday,
November 5, at Pasadena, Cal. Rodgers flew a Wright biplane,
and during his long trip the machine was repeatedly
repaired, so great was the strain of the long journey in the
air. Rodgers is estimated to have covered 4,231 miles,
although the actual route as mapped out was but 4,017 miles.
Elapsed time to Pasadena, Cal., 49 days; actual time in the
air, 4,924 minutes, equivalent to 3 days 10 hours 4 minutes;
average speed approximating 51 miles per hour. Rodgers'
longest flight in one day was from Sanderson to Sierra Blanca,
Texas, on October 28, when he covered 231 miles. On November
12, Rodgers fell at Compton, Cal., and was badly injured,
causing a delay of 28 days.
European Circuit Race.--Started from Paris on June 18,
1911. Distance, 1,073 miles, via Paris to Liege; Liege to Spa
to Liege; Liege to Utrecht, Holland; Utrecht to Brussels,
Belgium; Brussels to Roubaix; Roubaix to Calais; Calais to
London; London to Calais and Calais to Paris. Three aeronauts
were killed either at the start or shortly after the race
was in progress. They were Capt. Princetau, M. Le Martin
and M. Lendron. Three others were injured by falls. Seven
hundred thousand spectators witnessed the start from the
aviation field at Vincennes, near Paris. There were more
than forty starters, of which eight finished. The winner, Lieut.
Jean Conneau, who flies under the name of "Andre Beaumont,"
completed the circuit on July 7; his actual net flying time for
the distance being 58h. 38m. 4-5s.
Circuit of England Race--1,010 Miles in Five Sections.--
Start, July 22. Finish, July 26. Prize, $50,000. Twenty-
eight entries and eighteen starters. Seventeen finished the
first section from Brooklands to Hendon, a distance of twenty
miles. Five reached Edinburgh, the second section, a distance
of 343 miles, and four completed the entire circuit.
Paris to Madrid Race.--This race was started at the Paris
aviation held at Issy-les-Moulineaux on Sunday, May 21. There
were twenty-one entrants, and fully 300,000 spectators gathered
to witness the initial flight of the aerial races. The race
was divided into three stages as follows: Paris to Angouleme,
248 miles; Angouleme to St. Sebastian, 208 miles, and from
St. Sebastian to Madrid, 386 miles, a total distance of 842
miles. After three of the entrants had safely left the field,
Aviator Train lost control of his plane, and in falling struck
and killed M. Berteaux, the French Minister of War, and
seriously injured Premier Monis. The accident caused the
withdrawal of all but six of the original entrants, and of these
but one finished. The race called for a flight over the
Pyrenees Mountains, and Vedrines, the winner, had to rise
to a height of more than 7,000 feet to pass the mountain
barrier near Somosierra Pass. Both Vedrines and Gibert, another
competitor, were attacked by eagles during the latter
stages of the flight. Vedrines, who started from Paris on
Monday, May 22, finished the long and perilous race at 8:06
a. m. Friday, May 26. Vedrines net flying time, all controls
and enforced stops subtracted, was 14h. 55m. 18s. The various
prizes to the winner aggregated $30,000.
The Paris-Rome-Turin Race.--The conditions of this race
called for a flight between the cities of Paris, Rome and
Turin, covering a distance of 1,300 miles. The aviators were
permitted by the rules to alight whenever and wherever they
desired and the time limit was set from May 28 to June 15.
A prize of $100,000 was offered the winner, but the contest
was never finished, as one after another the aviators dropped
out until Frey fell near Roncigilione, France, breaking both
arms and legs and unofficially ending the contest. There
were twenty-one entries and twelve actual starters.
International Speed Cup Race.--The third annual international
James Gordon Bennett speed cup race was held at
Eastchurch, England, on July 1, 1911, and for the second
time was won by an American aviator, C. T. Weymann, in a
French racing aeroplane. The distance was 150 kilometres
equivalent to 94 miles, and the winner's time of 1h. 11m. 36s.
showed an average speed of 78.77 miles per hour. The first
race was held in 1909 and was won by Glenn Curtiss, who
flew the twenty kilometres (12.4 miles) in 15 minutes 50 2-5
seconds at an average speed of 47 miles per hour. In 1910
the winner was Grahame-White, who covered 100 kilometres
(62 miles) at Belmont Park, L. I., in 60 minutes 47 3-5 seconds,
an average speed of 61.3 miles per hour. In the 1911
race there were six starters: three from France, two from
Great Britain and one from the United States.
Milan to Turin to Milan Race.--This race which was
started from Milan, Italy, on October 29, was restricted to
Italian aviators and had six starters. The distance was
approximately 177 miles and won by Manissero in a Bleriot
machine in 3h. 16m. 2 4-5s.
New York to Philadelphia Race.--The first intercity aeroplane
race ever held in the United States was started from
New York City on August 5, and finished in Philadelphia the
same day. The prize of $5,000 was offered by a commercial
concern with stores in the two cities: Three entrants competed
from the Curtiss Exhibition Company. The distance
was approximately 83 miles and won by L. Beachey in a
Curtiss machine in 1h. 50m. at an average speed of 45 miles
per hour.
Tri-State Race.--The tri-state race was the feature event
of the Harvard Aviation Society meet held at Squantum,
Mass., August 26 to September 6. It was held Labor Day,
September 4, over a course of 174 miles, from Boston to
Nashua to Worcester to Providence to Boston. Four competitors
started, of which two finished, the winner, E. Ovington,
in a Bleriot machine. Ovington's net flying time, 3h. 6m.
22 1-5s. Winner's prize, $10,000.
AEROPLANES AND DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS IN WARFARE.
Wonderful progress has been made in the development of
the aeroplane in this country and in Europe since 1903, and
within the last two or three years the leading powers of the
world have entered upon extensive tests and experiments to
determine its availability and usefulness in land and naval
warfare.
At the present time all the great powers are building or
purchasing aeroplanes on an extensive scale. They have
established government schools for the instruction of their
army and navy officers and for experimental work. So-called
"Airship Fleets" have been constructed and placed in commission
as auxiliaries to the armies and navies. The fleets
of France and Germany are about equal and are larger by
far than those of any of the other powers. The length of the
dirigibles composing these fleets runs from 150 to 500 feet;
they are equipped with engines of from 50 to 500 horse-power,
with a rate of speed ranging from 20 to 30 miles per hour.
Their approximate range is from 200 to 900 miles; the longest
actual run (made by the Zeppelin II, Germany) is 800 miles.
A British naval airship, one of the largest yet built, was
completed last summer. It has cost over $200,000, and it was
in course of designing and construction two years. It is 510
feet long; can carry 22 persons, and has a lift of 21 tons.
The relative value of the dirigible balloon and the aeroplane
in actual war is yet to be determined. The dirigible
is considered to be the safer, yet several large balloons of this
class in Germany and France have met with disaster, involving
loss of lives. The capacity of the dirigible for longer
flights and its superior facilities for carrying apparatus and
operators for wireless telegraphy are distinct advantages.
There has not yet been much opportunity to test the airship
in actual warfare. The aeroplane has been used by the
Italians in Tripoli for scouting and reconnoitering and is said
to have justified expectations. On several occasions the Italian
military aviators followed the movements of the enemy, in
one instance as far as forty miles inland. At the time of the
attack by the Turks a skillful aeroplane reconnaissance revealed
the approach of a large Turkish force, believed to be at
the time sixty miles away in the mountains.
Aeroplanes and airships, as they exist today, would doubtless
render very valuable service in a time of war, both over
land and water, in scouting, reconnoitering, carrying dispatches,
and as some experts believe, in locating submarines
and mines placed by the enemy in channels of exits from ports.
A "coast aeroplane" could fly out 30 or 40 miles from land.
and rising to a great height, descry any hostile ships on the
distant horizon, observe their number, strength, formation and
direction, and return within two hours with a report to obtain
which would require several swift torpedo-boat destroyers
and a much greater time. The question as to whether it
would be practicable to bombard an enemy on land or sea
with explosive bombs dropped or discharged from flying machines
or airships, is one which is much discussed but hardly
yet determined.
Aeroplanes have been constructed with floats in the place
of runners and several attempts have been made, in some
cases successfully, to light with them on and to rise from the
water. Mr. Curtiss did this at San Francisco, in January,
1911. Attempts have also been made with the aeroplane to
alight on and to take flight from the deck of a warship. Toward
the end of 1910 Aviator Ely flew to land from the
cruiser Birmingham, and in January, 1911, he flew from land
and alighted on the cruiser Pennsylvania. But in these cases
special arrangements were made which would be hardly practicable
in a time of actual war.
In November, 1911, a test was made at Newport, R. I., by
Lieut. Rodgers, of the navy, of a "hydro-areoplane" as an
auxiliary to a battleship. The idea of the test was to alight
alongside of the ship, hoist the machine aboard, put out to sea
and launch the machine again with the use of a crane. Lieut.
Rodgers came down smoothly alongside the Ohio, his machine
was easily drawn aboard with a crane, and the Ohio steamed
down to the open sea, where it was blowing half a gale. But,
owing to the misjudgment of the ship's headway, one of the
wings of the machine when it struck the water after being
released from the crane, went under the water and was
snapped off. Lieut. Rodgers was convinced that this method
was too risky and that some other must be devised.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
GLOSSARY OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS.
Aerodrome.--Literally a machine that runs in the air.
Aerofoil.--The advancing transverse section of an aeroplane.
Aeroplane.--A flying machine of the glider pattern,
used in contra-distinction to a dirigible balloon.
Aeronaut.--A person who travels in the air.
Aerostat.--A machine sustaining weight in the air. A
balloon is an aerostat.
Aerostatic.--Pertaining to suspension in the air; the
art of aerial navigation.
Ailerons.--Small stabilizing planes attached to the main
planes to assist in preserving equilibrium.
Angle of Incidence.--Angle formed by making comparison
with a perpendicular line or body.
Angle of Inclination.--Angle at which a flying machine
rises. This angle, like that of incidence, is obtained
by comparison with an upright, or perpendicular line.
Auxiliary Planes.--Minor plane surfaces, used in conjunction
with the main planes for stabilizing purposes.
Biplane.--A flying-machine of the glider type with two
surface planes.
Blade Twist.--The angle of twist or curvature on a
propeller blade.
Cambered.--Curve or arch in plane, or wing from port
to starboard.
Chassis.--The under framework of a flying machine; the
framework of the lower plane.
Control.--System by which the rudders and stabilizing
planes are manipulated.
Dihedral.--Having two sides and set at an angle, like
dihedral planes, or dihedral propeller blades.
Dirigible.--Obedient to a rudder; something that may
be steered or directed.
Helicopter.--Flying machine the lifting power of which
is furnished by vertical propellers.
Lateral Curvature.--Parabolic form in a transverse direction.
Lateral Equilibrium or Stability.--Maintenance of the
machine on an even keel transversely. If the lateral
equilibrium is perfect the extreme ends of the machine
will be on a dead level.
Longitudinal Equilibrium or Stability.--Maintenance of
the machine on an even keel from front to rear.
Monoplane.--Flying machine with one supporting, or
surface plane.
Multiplane.--Flying machine with more than three surface
planes.
Ornithopter.--Flying machine with movable bird-like
wings.
Parabolic Curves.--Having the form of a parabola--a
conic section.
Pitch of Propeller Blade.--See "Twist."
Ribs.--The pieces over which the cloth covering is
stretched.
Spread.--The distance from end to end of the main surface;
the transverse dimension.
Stanchions.--Upright pieces connecting the upper and
lower frames.
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