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Raphael Sabatini - "The Sea Hawk"

Maurice Maeterlinck - "Wisdom And Destiny"

George Berkeley - "An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision"

The trade, domestic and foreign

H >> Henry Charles Carey >> The trade, domestic and foreign




Under these circumstances, the only mode of arriving at the history of
slavery prior to the first census, in 1790, appears to be to commence
at that date and go forward, and afterwards employ the information so
obtained in endeavouring to elucidate the operations of the previous
period.

The number of negroes, free and enslaved, at
that date, was.................................... 757,263
And at the second census, in 1801, it was......... 1,001,436

showing an increase of almost thirty-three per cent.
How much of this, however, was due to importation,
we have now to inquire. The only two States that
then tolerated the import of slaves were South
Carolina and Georgia, the joint black population
of which, in 1790, was............................. 136,358
whereas, in 1800, it had risen to.................. 205,555
-------
Increase.......... 69,197
=======

In the same period the white population increased
104,762, requiring an immigration from the Northern
slave States to the extent of not less than 45,000,
even allowing more than thirty per cent. for the
natural increase by births. Admitting, now, that for
every family of five free persons there came one
slave, this, would account for....................... 9,000
And if we take the natural increase of the slave
population at only twenty-five per cent., we have
further.............................................. 34,000
------
Making a total from domestic sources of............ 43,000
And leaving, for the import from abroad............ 26,197

Deducting these from the total number added, we obtain, for the
natural increase, about 29-1/2 per cent.

Macpherson, treating of this period, says--

"That importation is not necessary for keeping up the stock is proved
by the example of North America--a country less congenial to the
constitution of the negro than the West Indies--where,
notwithstanding the destruction and desertion of the slaves
occasioned by the war, the number of negroes, though perhaps not of
slaves, has greatly increased--because, _since the war they have
imported very few_, and of late years none at all, except in the
Southern States."--_Annals_, vol. iv. 150.

The number of vessels employed in the slave trade, in 1795, is stated
to have been twenty, all of them small; and the number of slaves to be
carried was limited to one for each ton of their capacity.

From 1800 to 1810, the increase was 378,374, of which nearly 30,000
were found in Louisiana at her incorporation into the Union, leaving
about 350,000 to come from other sources; being an increase of 35 per
cent. In this period the increase of Georgia and South Carolina, the
two importing States, was only 96,000, while that, of the white
population was 129,073, carrying with them perhaps 25,000. If to this
be added the natural increase at the rate of 25 per cent., we obtain
about 75,000, leaving only 21,000 for importation. It is probable,
however, that it was somewhat larger, and that it might be safe to
estimate it at the same amount as in the previous period, making a
total of about 52,000 in the twenty years. Deducting 26,000 from the
350,000, we obtain 324,000 as the addition from domestic sources,
which would be about 32 per cent. on the population of 1800. This may
be too high; and yet the growth of the following decennial period--one
of war and great commercial and agricultural distress--was almost
thirty per cent. In 1810, the number had been 1,379,800.

In 1820 it was 1,779,885; increase 30 per cent.
" 1830 " 2,328,642; " 30.8 " "
" 1840 " 2,873,703; " 24 " "
" 1850 " 3,591,000; " 25 " " [11]

Having thus ascertained, as far as possible, the ratio of increase
subsequent to the first census, we may now proceed to an examination
of the course of affairs in the period which had preceded it.

In 1714, the number of blacks was 58,850, and they were dispersed
throughout the provinces from New Hampshire to Carolina, engaged, to a
large extent, in labours similar to those in which were engaged the
whites by whom they were owned. One-half of them may have been
imported. Starting from this point, and taking the natural increase of
each decennial period at 25 per cent., as shown to have since been the
case, we should obtain, for 1750, about 130,000. The actual quantity
was 220,000; and the difference, 90,000, may be set down to
importation. Adding, now, 25 percent, to 220,000, we obtain, for 1760,
275,000; whereas the actual number was 310,000, which Would give
35,000 for importation. Pursuing the same course with the following
periods, we obtain the following results:--

Actual Natural Actual
Years Number. Increase. Increase. Importation.
----- ------- --------- --------- ------------
1760..... 310,000..... 77,500..... 152,000..... 74,500
1770..... 462,000..... 115,500..... 120,000..... }
1780..... 582,000..... 140,500..... 170,000..... } 34,000
1790..... 752,000, number given by first census.

For a large portion of the period from 1770 to 1790, there must have
been a very small importation; for during nearly half the time the
trade with foreign countries was almost altogether suspended by the
war of the revolution.

If we add together the quantities thus obtained, we shall obtain a
tolerable approximation to the number of slaves imported into the
territory now constituting the Union, as follows:--

Prior to 1714..................................... 30,000
1715 to 1750...................................... 90,000
1751 to 1760...................................... 35,000
1761 to 1770...................................... 74,500
1771 to 1790...................................... 34,000
And if we now estimate the import
subsequent to 1790 at even........................ 70,000
-------
We obtain as the total number................... 333,500
=======

The number now in the Union exceeds 3,800,000; and even if we estimate
the import as high as 380,000, we then have more than ten for one;
whereas in the British Islands we can find not more than two for five,
and perhaps even not more than one for three. Had the slaves of the
latter been as well fed, clothed, lodged, and otherwise cared for, as
were those of these provinces and States, their numbers would have
reached seventeen or twenty millions. Had the blacks among the people
of these States experienced the same treatment as did their fellows of
the islands, we should now have among us less than one hundred and
fifty thousand slaves.

The prices paid by the British Government averaged
£25 per head. Had the number in the colonies been
allowed to increase as they increased here, it
would have required, even at that price, the
enormous sum of................................ £500,000,000

Had the numbers in this country been reduced
by the same process there practised, emancipation
could now be carried out at cost of less than.. £4,000,000

To emancipate them now, paying for them at the
same rate, would require nearly................ £100,000,000

or almost five hundred millions of dollars. The same course, however,
that has increased their numbers, has largely increased their value to
the owners and to themselves. Men, when well fed, well clothed, well
lodged, and otherwise well cared for, always increase rapidly in
numbers, and in such cases labour always increases rapidly in value;
and hence it is that the average price of the negro slave of this
country is probably four times greater than that which the planters of
the West Indies were compelled to receive. Such being the case, it
would follow that to pay for their full value would require probably
four hundred millions of pounds sterling, or nearly two thousand
millions of dollars.

It will now be seen that the course of things in the two countries has
been entirely different. In the islands the slave trade had been
cherished as a source of profit. Here, it had been made the subject of
repeated protests on the part of several of the provinces, and had
been by all but two prohibited at the earliest moment at which they
possessed the power so to do. In the islands it was held to be cheaper
to buy slaves than to raise them, and the sexes were out of all
proportion to each other. Here, importation was small, and almost the
whole increase, large as it has been, has resulted from the excess of
births over deaths. In the islands, the slave was generally a
barbarian, speaking an unknown tongue, and working with men like
himself, in gangs, with scarcely a chance for improvement. Here, he
was generally a being born on the soil, speaking the same language
with his owner; and often working in the field with him, with many
advantages for the development of his faculties. In the islands, the
land-owners clung to slavery as the sheet-anchor of their hopes. Here,
on the contrary, slavery had gradually been abolished in all the
States north of Mason & Dixon's line, and Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia, and Kentucky were all, at the date of emancipation in the
islands, preparing for the early adoption of measures looking to its
entire abolition. In the islands, the connection with Africa had been
cherished as a means of obtaining cheap labour, to be obtained by
fomenting discord among the natives. Here, on the contrary, had
originated a grand scheme for carrying civilization into the heart of
Africa by means of the gradual transplantation of some of the already
civilized blacks. In the islands, it has been deemed desirable to
carry out "the European policy," of preventing the Africans "from
arriving at perfection" in the art of preparing their cotton, sugar,
indigo, or other articles, "from a fear of interfering with
established branches of commerce elsewhere."[12] Here, on the
contrary, efforts had been made for disseminating among them the
knowledge required for perfecting themselves in the modes of
preparation and manufacture. In the islands, every thing looked toward
the permanency of slavery. Here, every thing looked toward the gradual
and gentle civilization and emancipation of the negro throughout the
world. In the islands, however, by a prompt measure forced on the
people by a distant government, slavery was abolished, and the
planters, or their representatives in England, received twenty
millions of pounds sterling as compensation in full for the services
of the few who remained in existence out of the large number that had
been imported. Here, the planters are now urged to adopt for
themselves measures of a similar kind. The whole course of proceeding
in the two countries in reference to the negro having been so widely
different, there are, however, difficulties in the way that seem to be
almost insuperable. The power to purchase the slaves of the British
colonies was a consequence of the fact that their numbers had not been
permitted to increase. The difficulty of purchasing them here is
great, because of their having been well fed, well clothed, and
otherwise well provided for, and having therefore increased so
rapidly. If, nevertheless, it can be shown that by abandoning the
system under which the negro race has steadily increased in numbers
and advanced towards civilization, and adopting that of a nation under
whose rule there has been a steady decline of numbers, and but little,
if any, tendency toward civilization, we shall benefit the race, it
will become our duty to make the effort, however great may be the
cost. With a view to ascertain how far duty may be regarded as calling
upon us now to follow in the footsteps of that nation, it is proposed
to examine into the working of the act by which the whole negro
population of the British colonies was, almost at once and without
preparation, invested with the right to determine for whom they would
work and what should be their wages--or were, in other words, declared
to be free.




CHAPTER IV.

OF EMANCIPATION IN THE BRITISH COLONIES.


The harmony of the universe is the result of a contest between equal
and opposing powers. The earth is attracted to the sun and from the
sun; and were either of these forces to be diminished or destroyed,
chaos would be the inevitable result. So is it everywhere on the
earth. The apple falls toward the centre of the earth, but in its
passage it encounters resistance; and the harmony of every thing we
see around us is dependent on the equal balance of these opposing
forces. So is it among men. The man who has food to sell wishes to
have a high price for it, whereas, he who needs to buy desires to have
it cheaply; and the selling price depends on the relation between the
necessity to buy on one hand, or to sell on the other. Diminish
suddenly and largely the competition for the purchase of food, and the
farmer becomes the prey of the mechanic. Increase it suddenly and
largely, and the mechanic becomes the prey of the farmer; whereas a
gradual and gentle increase in the demand for food is accompanied by a
similar increase in the demand for the products of the loom and the
anvil, and both farmer and mechanic prosper together, because the
competition for purchase and the competition for sale grow together
and balance each other. So, too, with labour. Wages are dependent upon
the relation between the number of those who desire to buy and to sell
labour. Diminish suddenly the number of those who desire to sell it,
and the farmer may be ruined. Diminish suddenly the number of those
who desire to buy it, and the labourer may become the slave of the
farmer.

For almost two centuries, men possessed of capital and desirous to
purchase labour had been induced to transfer it to the colonies, and
the government secured to them the right to obtain labourers on
certain specified terms--such terms as made the labourer a mere
instrument in the hands of the capitalist, and prevented him from
obtaining any of those habits or feelings calculated to inspire him
with a love for labour. At once, all control over him was withdrawn,
and the seller of labour was converted into the master of him who was
thus, by the action of the government, placed in such a situation that
he _must_ buy it or be ruined. Here was a disturbance of the order of
things that had existed, almost as great as that which occurs when the
powerful steam, bursting the boiler in which it is enclosed, ceases to
be the servant and becomes the master of man; and it would have
required but little foresight to enable those who had the government
of this machine to see that it must prove almost as ruinous.

How it operated in Southern Africa, where the slave was most at home,
is shown by the following extracts from the work of a recent traveller
and settler in that colony:--[13]

"The chain was broken, and the people of England hurraed to their
heart's content. And the slave! What, in the meanwhile, became of
him? If he was young and vicious, away he went--he was his own
master. He was at liberty to walk to and fro upon the earth, 'seeking
whom he might devour.' He was free: he had the world before him where
to choose, though, squatted beside the Kaffir's fire, probably
thinking his meal of parched corn but poor stuff after the palatable
dishes he had been permitted to cook for himself in the Boer's or
tradesman's kitchen. But he was fain to like it--he could get nothing
else--and this was earned at the expense of his own soul; for it was
given him as an inducement to teach the Kaffir the easiest mode of
plundering his ancient master. If inclined to work, he had no certain
prospect of employment; and the Dutch, losing so much by the sudden
Emancipation Act, resolved on working for themselves. So the
virtuous, redeemed slave, had too many temptations to remain
virtuous: he was hungry--so was his wife--so were his children; and
he must feed them. How? No matter."

These people will work at times, but they must have wages that will
enable them to play much of their time.

"When we read of the distress of our own country, and of the wretched
earnings of our mechanics, we are disgusted at the idea of these same
Fingoes striking work (as Coolies) at Waterloo Bay, being
dissatisfied with the pay of 2s. a day. As their services are
necessary in landing cargo, their demand of 3s. a day has been
acceded to, and they have consented to work when it suits them!--for
they take occasional holidays, for dancing and eating. At Algoa Bay,
the Fingoes are often paid 6s. a day for working as Coolies."

These men have all the habits of the savage. They leave to the women
the tilling of the ground, the hoeing of the corn, the carrying of
water, and all the heavy work; and to the boys and old men the tending
of the cattle, while they themselves spend the year in hunting,
dancing, eating, and robbing their neighbours--except when
occasionally they deem it expedient to do a few days' work at such
wages as they may think proper to dictate.

How it has operated in the West Indies we may next inquire, and with
that view will take Jamaica, one of the oldest, and, until lately, one
of the most prosperous of the colonies. That island embraces about
four millions of acres of land, "of which," says Mr. Bigelow,--

"There are not, probably, any ten lying adjacent to each other which
are not susceptible of the highest cultivation, while not more than
500,000 acres have ever been reclaimed, or even appropriated."[14]

"It is traversed by over two hundred streams, forty of which are from
twenty-five to one hundred feet in breadth; and, it deserves to be
mentioned, furnish water-power sufficient to manufacture every thing
produced by the soil, or consumed by the inhabitants. Far less
expense than is usually incurred on the same surface in the United
States for manure, would irrigate all the dry lands of the island,
and enable them to defy the most protracted droughts by which it is
ever visited."[15]

The productiveness of the soil is immense. Fruits of every variety
abound; vegetables of every kind for the table, and Indian corn, grow
abundantly. The island is rich in dyestuffs, drugs, and spices of the
greatest value; and the forests furnish the most celebrated woods in
the greatest variety. In addition to this, it possesses copper-mines
inferior to none in the world, and coal will probably be mined
extensively before many years. "Such," says Mr. Bigelow,--

"Are some of the natural resources of this dilapidated and
poverty-stricken country. Capable as it is of producing almost every
thing, and actually producing nothing which might not become a staple
with a proper application of capital and skill, its inhabitants are
miserably poor, and daily sinking deeper and deeper into the utter
helplessness of abject want.

"'Magnas inter opes inops.'

"Shipping has deserted her ports; her magnificent plantations of
sugar and coffee are running to weeds; her private dwellings are
falling to decay; the comforts and luxuries which belong to
industrial prosperity have been cut off, one by one, from her
inhabitants; and the day, I think, is at hand when there will be none
left to represent the wealth, intelligence, and hospitality for which
the Jamaica planter was once so distinguished."

The cause of all this, say the planters, is that wages are too high
for the price of sugar. This Mr. Bigelow denies--not conceding that a
shilling a day is high wages; but all the facts he adduces tend to
show that the labourer gives very little labour for the money he
receives; and that, as compared with the work done, wages are really
far higher than in any part of the Union. Like the Fingo of Southern
Africa, he can obtain from a little patch of land all that is
indispensably necessary for his subsistence, and he will do little
more work than is needed for accomplishing that object. The
consequence of this is that potatoes sell for six cents a pound, eggs
from three to five cents each, milk at eighteen cents a quart, and
corn-meal at twelve or fourteen dollars a barrel; and yet there are
now more than a hundred thousand of these small proprietors, being
almost one for every three people on the island. All cultivators, they
yet produce little to sell, and the consequence of this is seen in the
fact that the mass of the flour, rice, corn, peas, butter, lard,
herrings, &c. needed for consumption requires to be imported, as well
as all the lumber, although millions of acres of timber are to be
found among the unappropriated lands of the island.

It is impossible to read Mr. Bigelow's volume, without arriving at the
conclusion that the freedom granted to the negro has had little effect
except that of enabling him to live at the expense of the planter so
long as any thing remained. Sixteen years of freedom did not appear to
its author to have "advanced the dignity of labour or of the labouring
classes one particle," while it had ruined the proprietors of the
land; and thus great damage had been done to the one class without
benefit of any kind to the other. From a statistical table published
in August last, it appears, says the _New York Herald_, that since
1846--

"The number of sugar-estates on the island that have been totally
abandoned amounts to one hundred and sixty-eight, and the number
partially abandoned to sixty-three; the value of which two hundred
and thirty-one estates was assessed, in 1841, at £1,655,140, or
nearly eight millions and a half of dollars. Within the same period,
two hundred and twenty-three coffee-plantations have been totally,
and twenty partially abandoned, the assessed value of which was, in
1841, £500,000, or two millions and a half of dollars; and of
cattle-pens, (grazing-farms,) one hundred and twenty-two have been
totally, and ten partially abandoned, the value of which was a
million and a half of dollars. The aggregate value of these six
hundred and six estates, which have been thus ruined and abandoned in
the island of Jamaica, within the last seven or eight years, amounted
by the regular assessments, ten years since, to the sum of nearly two
and a half millions of pounds sterling, or twelve and a half million
of dollars."

As a necessary consequence of this, "there is little heard of," says
Dr. King, "but ruin."[16] "In many districts," he adds--

"The marks of decay abound. Neglected fields, crumbling houses,
fragmentary fences, noiseless machinery--these are common sights, and
soon become familiar to observation. I sometimes rode for miles in
succession over fertile ground which used to be cultivated, and which
is now lying waste. So rapidly has cultivation retrograded, and the
wild luxuriance of nature replaced the conveniences of art, that
parties still inhabiting these desolated districts, have sometimes,
in the strong language of a speaker at Kingston, 'to seek about the
bush to find the entrance into their houses.'

"The towns present a spectacle not less gloomy. A great part of
Kingston was destroyed, some years ago, by an extensive
conflagration: yet multitudes of the houses which escaped that
visitation are standing empty, though the population is little, if at
all diminished. The explanation is obvious. Persons who have nothing,
and can no longer keep up their domestic establishments, take refuge
in the abodes of others, where some means of subsistence are still
left: and in the absence of any discernible trade or occupation, the
lives of crowded thousands appear to be preserved from day to day by
a species of miracle. The most busy thoroughfares of former times
have now almost the quietude of a Sabbath."

"The finest land in the world," says Mr. Bigelow, "may be had at any
price, and almost for the asking." Labour, he adds, "receives no
compensation, and the product of labour does not seem to know how to
find the way to market." Properties which were formerly valued at
£40,000 would not now command £4000, and others, after having been
sold at six, eight, or ten per cent. of their former value, have been
finally abandoned.

The following is from a report made in 1849 and signed by various
missionaries:--

"Missionary efforts in Jamaica are beset at the present time with
many and great discouragements. Societies at home have withdrawn or
diminished the amount of assistance afforded by them to chapels and
schools throughout this island. The prostrate condition of its
agriculture and commerce disables its own population from doing as
much as formerly for maintaining the worship of God and the tuition
of the young, and induces numbers of negro labourers to retire from
estates which have been thrown up, to seek the means of subsistence
in the mountains, where they are removed in general from moral
training and superintendence. The consequences of this state of
matters are very disastrous. Not a few missionaries and teachers,
often struggling with difficulties which they could not overcome,
have returned to Europe, and others are preparing to follow them.
Chapels and schools are abandoned, or they have passed into the
charge of very incompetent instructors."--_Quoted in King's Jamaica_,
p. 111.

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