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The Voyage Of The Beagle

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APRIL 18, 1832.

(PLATE 11. CABBAGE PALM.)

In returning we spent two days at Socˆgo, and I employed them in
collecting insects in the forest. The greater number of trees,
although so lofty, are not more than three or four feet in
circumference. There are, of course, a few of much greater
dimension. Senhôr Manuel was then making a canoe 70 feet in
length from a solid trunk, which had originally been 110 feet
long, and of great thickness. The contrast of palm trees, growing
amidst the common branching kinds, never fails to give the scene
an intertropical character. Here the woods were ornamented by the
Cabbage Palm--one of the most beautiful of its family. With a
stem so narrow that it might be clasped with the two hands, it
waves its elegant head at the height of forty or fifty feet above
the ground. The woody creepers, themselves covered by other
creepers, were of great thickness: some which I measured were two
feet in circumference. Many of the older trees presented a very
curious appearance from the tresses of a liana hanging from their
boughs, and resembling bundles of hay. If the eye was turned from
the world of foliage above, to the ground beneath, it was
attracted by the extreme elegance of the leaves of the ferns and
mimosae. The latter, in some parts, covered the surface with a
brushwood only a few inches high. In walking across these thick
beds of mimosae, a broad track was marked by the change of shade,
produced by the drooping of their sensitive petioles. It is easy
to specify the individual objects of admiration in these grand
scenes; but it is not possible to give an adequate idea of the
higher feelings of wonder, astonishment, and devotion, which fill
and elevate the mind.

(PLATE 12. MANDIOCA OR CASSAVA.)

APRIL 19, 1832.

Leaving Socˆgo, during the two first days we retraced our steps.
It was very wearisome work, as the road generally ran across a
glaring hot sandy plain, not far from the coast. I noticed that
each time the horse put its foot on the fine siliceous sand, a
gentle chirping noise was produced. On the third day we took a
different line, and passed through the gay little village of
Madre de De“s. This is one of the principal lines of road in
Brazil; yet it was in so bad a state that no wheel vehicle,
excepting the clumsy bullock-wagon, could pass along. In our
whole journey we did not cross a single bridge built of stone;
and those made of logs of wood were frequently so much out of
repair that it was necessary to go on one side to avoid them. All
distances are inaccurately known. The road is often marked by
crosses, in the place of milestones, to signify where human blood
has been spilled. On the evening of the 23rd we arrived at Rio,
having finished our pleasant little excursion.

During the remainder of my stay at Rio, I resided in a cottage at
Botofogo Bay. It was impossible to wish for anything more
delightful than thus to spend some weeks in so magnificent a
country. In England any person fond of natural history enjoys in
his walks a great advantage, by always having something to
attract his attention; but in these fertile climates, teeming
with life, the attractions are so numerous, that he is scarcely
able to walk at all.

The few observations which I was enabled to make were almost
exclusively confined to the invertebrate animals. The existence
of a division of the genus Planaria, which inhabits the dry land,
interested me much. These animals are of so simple a structure,
that Cuvier has arranged them with the intestinal worms, though
never found within the bodies of other animals. Numerous species
inhabit both salt and fresh water; but those to which I allude
were found, even in the drier parts of the forest, beneath logs
of rotten wood, on which I believe they feed. In general form
they resemble little slugs, but are very much narrower in
proportion, and several of the species are beautifully coloured
with longitudinal stripes. Their structure is very simple: near
the middle of the under or crawling surface there are two small
transverse slits, from the anterior one of which a funnel-shaped
and highly irritable mouth can be protruded. For some time after
the rest of the animal was completely dead from the effects of
salt water or any other cause, this organ still retained its
vitality.

I found no less than twelve different species of terrestrial
Planariae in different parts of the southern hemisphere. (2/3. I
have described and named these species in the "Annals of Natural
History" volume 14 page 241.) Some specimens which I obtained at
Van Dieman's Land, I kept alive for nearly two months, feeding
them on rotten wood. Having cut one of them transversely into two
nearly equal parts, in the course of a fortnight both had the
shape of perfect animals. I had, however, so divided the body,
that one of the halves contained both the inferior orifices, and
the other, in consequence, none. In the course of twenty-five
days from the operation, the more perfect half could not have
been distinguished from any other specimen. The other had
increased much in size; and towards its posterior end, a clear
space was formed in the parenchymatous mass, in which a
rudimentary cup-shaped mouth could clearly be distinguished; on
the under surface, however, no corresponding slit was yet open.
If the increased heat of the weather, as we approached the
equator, had not destroyed all the individuals, there can be no
doubt that this last step would have completed its structure.
Although so well known an experiment, it was interesting to watch
the gradual production of every essential organ, out of the
simple extremity of another animal. It is extremely difficult to
preserve these Planariae; as soon as the cessation of life allows
the ordinary laws of change to act, their entire bodies become
soft and fluid, with a rapidity which I have never seen equalled.

I first visited the forest in which these Planariae were found,
in company with an old Portuguese priest who took me out to hunt
with him. The sport consisted in turning into the cover a few
dogs, and then patiently waiting to fire at any animal which
might appear. We were accompanied by the son of a neighbouring
farmer--a good specimen of a wild Brazilian youth. He was dressed
in a tattered old shirt and trousers, and had his head uncovered:
he carried an old-fashioned gun and a large knife. The habit of
carrying the knife is universal; and in traversing a thick wood
it is almost necessary, on account of the creeping plants. The
frequent occurrence of murder may be partly attributed to this
habit. The Brazilians are so dexterous with the knife that they
can throw it to some distance with precision, and with sufficient
force to cause a fatal wound. I have seen a number of little boys
practising this art as a game of play, and from their skill in
hitting an upright stick, they promised well for more earnest
attempts. My companion, the day before, had shot two large
bearded monkeys. These animals have prehensile tails, the
extremity of which, even after death, can support the whole
weight of the body. One of them thus remained fast to a branch,
and it was necessary to cut down a large tree to procure it. This
was soon effected, and down came tree and monkey with an awful
crash. Our day's sport, besides the monkey, was confined to
sundry small green parrots and a few toucans. I profited,
however, by my acquaintance with the Portuguese padre, for on
another occasion he gave me a fine specimen of the Yagouaroundi
cat.

Every one has heard of the beauty of the scenery near Botofogo.
The house in which I lived was seated close beneath the
well-known mountain of the Corcovado. It has been remarked, with
much truth, that abruptly conical hills are characteristic of the
formation which Humboldt designates as gneiss-granite. Nothing
can be more striking than the effect of these huge rounded masses
of naked rock rising out of the most luxuriant vegetation.

I was often interested by watching the clouds, which, rolling in
from seaward, formed a bank just beneath the highest point of the
Corcovado. This mountain, like most others, when thus partly
veiled, appeared to rise to a far prouder elevation than its real
height of 2300 feet. Mr. Daniell has observed, in his
meteorological essays, that a cloud sometimes appears fixed on a
mountain summit, while the wind continues to blow over it. The
same phenomenon here presented a slightly different appearance.
In this case the cloud was clearly seen to curl over, and rapidly
pass by the summit, and yet was neither diminished nor increased
in size. The sun was setting, and a gentle southerly breeze,
striking against the southern side of the rock, mingled its
current with the colder air above; and the vapour was thus
condensed: but as the light wreaths of cloud passed over the
ridge, and came within the influence of the warmer atmosphere of
the northern sloping bank, they were immediately redissolved.

The climate, during the months of May and June, or the beginning
of winter, was delightful. The mean temperature, from
observations taken at nine o'clock, both morning and evening, was
only 72 degrees. It often rained heavily, but the drying
southerly winds soon again rendered the walks pleasant. One
morning, in the course of six hours, 1.6 inches of rain fell. As
this storm passed over the forests which surround the Corcovado,
the sound produced by the drops pattering on the countless
multitude of leaves was very remarkable, it could be heard at the
distance of a quarter of a mile, and was like the rushing of a
great body of water. After the hotter days, it was delicious to
sit quietly in the garden and watch the evening pass into night.
Nature, in these climes, chooses her vocalists from more humble
performers than in Europe. A small frog, of the genus Hyla, sits
on a blade of grass about an inch above the surface of the water,
and sends forth a pleasing chirp: when several are together they
sing in harmony on different notes. I had some difficulty in
catching a specimen of this frog. The genus Hyla has its toes
terminated by small suckers; and I found this animal could crawl
up a pane of glass, when placed absolutely perpendicular. Various
cicadae and crickets, at the same time, keep up a ceaseless
shrill cry, but which, softened by the distance, is not
unpleasant. Every evening after dark this great concert
commenced; and often have I sat listening to it, until my
attention has been drawn away by some curious passing insect.

At these times the fireflies are seen flitting about from hedge
to hedge. On a dark night the light can be seen at about two
hundred paces distant. It is remarkable that in all the different
kinds of glowworms, shining elaters, and various marine animals
(such as the crustacea, medusae, nereidae, a coralline of the
genus Clytia, and Pyrosoma), which I have observed, the light has
been of a well-marked green colour. All the fireflies, which I
caught here, belonged to the Lampyridae (in which family the
English glowworm is included), and the greater number of
specimens were of Lampyris occidentalis. (2/4. I am greatly
indebted to Mr. Waterhouse for his kindness in naming for me this
and many other insects, and giving me much valuable assistance.)
I found that this insect emitted the most brilliant flashes when
irritated: in the intervals, the abdominal rings were obscured.
The flash was almost coinstantaneous in the two rings, but it was
just perceptible first in the anterior one. The shining matter
was fluid and very adhesive: little spots, where the skin had
been torn, continued bright with a slight scintillation, whilst
the uninjured parts were obscured. When the insect was
decapitated the rings remained uninterruptedly bright, but not so
brilliant as before: local irritation with a needle always
increased the vividness of the light. The rings in one instance
retained their luminous property nearly twenty-four hours after
the death of the insect. From these facts it would appear
probable, that the animal has only the power of concealing or
extinguishing the light for short intervals, and that at other
times the display is involuntary. On the muddy and wet
gravel-walks I found the larvae of this lampyris in great
numbers: they resembled in general form the female of the English
glowworm. These larvae possessed but feeble luminous powers; very
differently from their parents, on the slightest touch they
feigned death, and ceased to shine; nor did irritation excite any
fresh display. I kept several of them alive for some time: their
tails are very singular organs, for they act, by a well-fitted
contrivance, as suckers or organs of attachment, and likewise as
reservoirs for saliva, or some such fluid. I repeatedly fed them
on raw meat; and I invariably observed, that every now and then
the extremity of the tail was applied to the mouth, and a drop of
fluid exuded on the meat, which was then in the act of being
consumed. The tail, notwithstanding so much practice, does not
seem to be able to find its way to the mouth; at least the neck
was always touched first, and apparently as a guide.

When we were at Bahia, an elater or beetle (Pyrophorus luminosus,
Illig.) seemed the most common luminous insect. The light in this
case was also rendered more brilliant by irritation. I amused
myself one day by observing the springing powers of this insect,
which have not, as it appears to me, been properly described.
(2/5. Kirby's "Entomology" volume 2 page 317.) The elater, when
placed on its back and preparing to spring, moved its head and
thorax backwards, so that the pectoral spine was drawn out, and
rested on the edge of its sheath. The same backward movement
being continued, the spine, by the full action of the muscles,
was bent like a spring; and the insect at this moment rested on
the extremity of its head and wing-cases. The effort being
suddenly relaxed, the head and thorax flew up, and in
consequence, the base of the wing-cases struck the supporting
surface with such force, that the insect by the reaction was
jerked upwards to the height of one or two inches. The projecting
points of the thorax, and the sheath of the spine, served to
steady the whole body during the spring. In the descriptions
which I have read, sufficient stress does not appear to have been
laid on the elasticity of the spine: so sudden a spring could not
be the result of simple muscular contraction, without the aid of
some mechanical contrivance.

On several occasions I enjoyed some short but most pleasant
excursions in the neighbouring country. One day I went to the
Botanic Garden, where many plants, well known for their great
utility, might be seen growing. The leaves of the camphor,
pepper, cinnamon, and clove trees were delightfully aromatic; and
the bread-fruit, the jaca, and the mango, vied with each other in
the magnificence of their foliage. The landscape in the
neighbourhood of Bahia almost takes its character from the two
latter trees. Before seeing them, I had no idea that any trees
could cast so black a shade on the ground. Both of them bear to
the evergreen vegetation of these climates the same kind of
relation which laurels and hollies in England do to the lighter
green of the deciduous trees. It may be observed that the houses
within the tropics are surrounded by the most beautiful forms of
vegetation, because many of them are at the same time most useful
to man. Who can doubt that these qualities are united in the
banana, the cocoa-nut, the many kinds of palm, the orange, and
the bread-fruit tree?

During this day I was particularly struck with a remark of
Humboldt's, who often alludes to "the thin vapour which, without
changing the transparency of the air, renders its tints more
harmonious, and softens its effects." This is an appearance which
I have never observed in the temperate zones. The atmosphere,
seen through a short space of half or three-quarters of a mile,
was perfectly lucid, but at a greater distance all colours were
blended into a most beautiful haze, of a pale French grey,
mingled with a little blue. The condition of the atmosphere
between the morning and about noon, when the effect was most
evident, had undergone little change, excepting in its dryness.
In the interval, the difference between the dew point and
temperature had increased from 7.5 to 17 degrees.

On another occasion I started early and walked to the Gavia, or
topsail mountain. The air was delightfully cool and fragrant; and
the drops of dew still glittered on the leaves of the large
liliaceous plants, which shaded the streamlets of clear water.
Sitting down on a block of granite, it was delightful to watch
the various insects and birds as they flew past. The humming-bird
seems particularly fond of such shady retired spots. Whenever I
saw these little creatures buzzing round a flower, with their
wings vibrating so rapidly as to be scarcely visible, I was
reminded of the sphinx moths: their movements and habits are
indeed in many respects very similar.

(PLATE 13. RIO DE JANEIRO.)

Following a pathway I entered a noble forest, and from a height
of five or six hundred feet, one of those splendid views was
presented, which are so common on every side of Rio. At this
elevation the landscape attains its most brilliant tint; and
every form, every shade, so completely surpasses in magnificence
all that the European has ever beheld in his own country, that he
knows not how to express his feelings. The general effect
frequently recalled to my mind the gayest scenery of the
Opera-house or the great theatres. I never returned from these
excursions empty-handed. This day I found a specimen of a curious
fungus, called Hymenophallus. Most people know the English
Phallus, which in autumn taints the air with its odious smell:
this, however, as the entomologist is aware, is to some of our
beetles a delightful fragrance. So was it here; for a Strongylus,
attracted by the odour, alighted on the fungus as I carried it in
my hand. We here see in two distant countries a similar relation
between plants and insects of the same families, though the
species of both are different. When man is the agent in
introducing into a country a new species this relation is often
broken: as one instance of this I may mention that the leaves of
the cabbages and lettuces, which in England afford food to such a
multitude of slugs and caterpillars, in the gardens near Rio are
untouched.

During our stay at Brazil I made a large collection of insects. A
few general observations on the comparative importance of the
different orders may be interesting to the English entomologist.
The large and brilliantly-coloured Lepidoptera bespeak the zone
they inhabit, far more plainly than any other race of animals. I
allude only to the butterflies; for the moths, contrary to what
might have been expected from the rankness of the vegetation,
certainly appeared in much fewer numbers than in our own
temperate regions. I was much surprised at the habits of Papilio
feronia. This butterfly is not uncommon, and generally frequents
the orange-groves. Although a high flier, yet it very frequently
alights on the trunks of trees. On these occasions its head is
invariably placed downwards; and its wings are expanded in a
horizontal plane, instead of being folded vertically, as is
commonly the case. This is the only butterfly which I have ever
seen that uses its legs for running. Not being aware of this
fact, the insect, more than once, as I cautiously approached with
my forceps, shuffled on one side just as the instrument was on
the point of closing, and thus escaped. But a far more singular
fact is the power which this species possesses of making a noise.
(2/6. Mr. Doubleday has lately described (before the
Entomological Society, March 3, 1845) a peculiar structure in the
wings of this butterfly, which seems to be the means of its
making its noise. He says, "It is remarkable for having a sort of
drum at the base of the fore wings, between the costal nervure
and the subcostal. These two nervures, moreover, have a peculiar
screw-like diaphragm or vessel in the interior." I find in
Langsdorff's travels (in the years 1803-7 page 74) it is said,
that in the island of St. Catherine's on the coast of Brazil, a
butterfly called Februa Hoffmanseggi, makes a noise, when flying
away, like a rattle.) Several times when a pair, probably male
and female, were chasing each other in an irregular course, they
passed within a few yards of me; and I distinctly heard a
clicking noise, similar to that produced by a toothed wheel
passing under a spring catch. The noise was continued at short
intervals, and could be distinguished at about twenty yards'
distance: I am certain there is no error in the observation.

I was disappointed in the general aspect of the Coleoptera. The
number of minute and obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly
great. (2/7. I may mention, as a common instance of one day's
(June 23rd) collecting, when I was not attending particularly to
the Coleoptera, that I caught sixty-eight species of that order.
Among these, there were only two of the Carabidae, four
Brachelytra, fifteen Rhyncophora, and fourteen of the
Chrysomelidae. Thirty-seven species of Arachnidae, which I
brought home, will be sufficient to prove that I was not paying
overmuch attention to the generally favoured order of
Coleoptera.) The cabinets of Europe can, as yet, boast only of
the larger species from tropical climates. It is sufficient to
disturb the composure of an entomologist's mind, to look forward
to the future dimensions of a complete catalogue. The carnivorous
beetles, or Carabidae, appear in extremely few numbers within the
tropics: this is the more remarkable when compared to the case of
the carnivorous quadrupeds, which are so abundant in hot
countries. I was struck with this observation both on entering
Brazil, and when I saw the many elegant and active forms of the
Harpalidae reappearing on the temperate plains of La Plata. Do
the very numerous spiders and rapacious Hymenoptera supply the
place of the carnivorous beetles? The carrion-feeders and
Brachelytra are very uncommon; on the other hand, the Rhyncophora
and Chrysomelidae, all of which depend on the vegetable world for
subsistence, are present in astonishing numbers. I do not here
refer to the number of different species, but to that of the
individual insects; for on this it is that the most striking
character in the entomology of different countries depends. The
orders Orthoptera and Hemiptera are particularly numerous; as
likewise is the stinging division of the Hymenoptera; the bees,
perhaps, being excepted. A person, on first entering a tropical
forest, is astonished at the labours of the ants: well-beaten
paths branch off in every direction, on which an army of
never-failing foragers may be seen, some going forth, and others
returning, burdened with pieces of green leaf, often larger than
their own bodies.

A small dark-coloured ant sometimes migrates in countless
numbers. One day, at Bahia, my attention was drawn by observing
many spiders, cockroaches, and other insects, and some lizards,
rushing in the greatest agitation across a bare piece of ground.
A little way behind, every stalk and leaf was blackened by a
small ant. The swarm having crossed the bare space, divided
itself, and descended an old wall. By this means many insects
were fairly enclosed; and the efforts which the poor little
creatures made to extricate themselves from such a death were
wonderful. When the ants came to the road they changed their
course, and in narrow files reascended the wall. Having placed a
small stone so as to intercept one of the lines, the whole body
attacked it, and then immediately retired. Shortly afterwards
another body came to the charge, and again having failed to make
any impression, this line of march was entirely given up. By
going an inch round, the file might have avoided the stone, and
this doubtless would have happened, if it had been originally
there: but having been attacked, the lion-hearted little warriors
scorned the idea of yielding.

Certain wasp-like insects, which construct in the corners of the
verandahs clay cells for their larvae, are very numerous in the
neighbourhood of Rio. These cells they stuff full of half-dead
spiders and caterpillars, which they seem wonderfully to know how
to sting to that degree as to leave them paralysed but alive,
until their eggs are hatched; and the larvae feed on the horrid
mass of powerless, half-killed victims--a sight which has been
described by an enthusiastic naturalist as curious and pleasing!
(2/8. In a Manuscript in the British Museum by Mr. Abbott, who
made his observations in Georgia; see Mr. A. White's paper in the
"Annals of Natural History" volume 7 page 472. Lieutenant Hutton
has described a sphex with similar habits in India, in the
"Journal of the Asiatic Society" volume 1 page 555.) I was much
interested one day by watching a deadly contest between a Pepsis
and a large spider of the genus Lycosa. The wasp made a sudden
dash at its prey, and then flew away: the spider was evidently
wounded, for, trying to escape, it rolled down a little slope,
but had still strength sufficient to crawl into a thick tuft of
grass. The wasp soon returned, and seemed surprised at not
immediately finding its victim. It then commenced as regular a
hunt as ever hound did after fox; making short semicircular
casts, and all the time rapidly vibrating its wings and antennae.
The spider, though well concealed, was soon discovered, and the
wasp, evidently still afraid of its adversary's jaws, after much
manoeuvring, inflicted two stings on the under side of its
thorax. At last, carefully examining with its antennae the now
motionless spider, it proceeded to drag away the body. But I
stopped both tyrant and prey. (2/9. Don Felix Azara volume 1 page
175, mentioning a hymenopterous insect, probably of the same
genus, says he saw it dragging a dead spider through tall grass,
in a straight line to its nest, which was one hundred and
sixty-three paces distant. He adds that the wasp, in order to
find the road, every now and then made "demi-tours d'environ
trois palmes.")

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